The notion that the Contact Prayers (Salat) can be learned from hadith is a common argument among adherents of hadith-based jurisprudence. Early collections, such as the Muwatta of Imam Malik, are frequently presented as essential sources for understanding the method and practice of prayer. However, a close analysis of these narrations reveals that they do not provide a comprehensive instructional framework. Rather, they presuppose a communal and historical familiarity with ṣalāh, inherited from the Abrahamic tradition. This article focuses on refuting the claim that hadith offer a complete guide to learning prayer, using Muwatta Malik as a case study to highlight its limitations in this regard.

We cannot learn how to pray through the Muwatta. The earliest compilation of Hadith, the Muwatta, is over 160 years after the Prophet’s death. This gap raises the question: how did Muslims learn to pray in the time between Muhammad’s death and the creation of the first major Hadith compilations like Bukhari & Muslim?

The Muwatta itself is not a comprehensive manual for prayer, nor does it provide detailed step-by-step instructions on how to pray. Although it includes some sayings attributed to the Prophet, companions, and Malik’s own opinions, the majority of the text consists of narrations about practices that were already well-established by the time of its compilation. Thus, it cannot be a guide for understanding prayer, and this raises the possibility that prayer was learned through other means, like the direct transmission from generation to generation or other practices that predated Hadith compilations.

The version of the Muwatta that became famous in North Africa and Andalusia contains 1,720 reports. Of these, however, only 527 are Prophetic hadiths; 613 are statements of the Companions, 285 are from Successors, and the rest are Malik’s own opinions.

Dr. Jonathan Brown, “Hadith Muhammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World,”

We know even prior to Muhammad, prayer existed and was established by Abraham:

[21:73] We made them imams who guided in accordance with our commandments, and we taught them how to work righteousness, and how to observe the Contact Prayers (Salat) and the obligatory charity (Zakat).* To us, they were devoted worshipers.

The absence of clear and unified Hadith manuscripts during this period suggests that people must have relied on living traditions, not hadith. Thus, it is evident that even with the Muwatta, the practices of prayer were likely passed down through other mechanisms, pointing to the possibility that Hadith cannot explain how prayer was learned and practiced in early Islam.

Learning to Pray From The Muwatta of Imam Malik

Here’s a formatted chart of the chapters in Muwatta Malik:

#	Chapter Title (English)	Chapter Title (Arabic)
1	The Times of Prayer	كتاب وقوت الصلاة
2	Purity	كتاب الطهارة
3	Prayer	كتاب الصلاة
4	Forgetfulness in Prayer	كتاب السهو
5	Jumu’a (Friday Prayer)	كتاب الجمعة
6	Prayer in Ramadan	كتاب الصلاة فى رمضان
7	Tahajjud (Night Prayer)	كتاب صلاة الليل
8	Prayer in Congregation	كتاب صلاة الجماعة
9	Shortening the Prayer	كتاب قصر الصلاة فى السفر
10	The Two ‘Ids (Eid Prayers)	كتاب العيدين
11	The Fear Prayer	كتاب صلاة الخوف
12	The Eclipse Prayer	كتاب صلاة الكسوف
13	Asking for Rain	كتاب الاستسقاء
14	The Qibla	كتاب القبلة
15	The Qur’an	كتاب القرآن
16	Burials	كتاب الجنائز
17	Zakat	كتاب الزكاة
18	Fasting	كتاب الصيام
19	I’tikaf in Ramadan	كتاب الاعتكاف
20	Hajj	كتاب الحج
21	Jihad	كتاب الجهاد
22	Vows and Oaths	كتاب النذور والأيمان
23	Sacrificial Animals	كتاب الضحايا
24	Slaughtering Animals	كتاب الذبائح
25	Game	كتاب الصيد
26	The ‘Aqiqa (Sacrifice for a Newborn)	كتاب العقيقة
27	Fara’id (Inheritance)	كتاب الفرائض
28	Marriage	كتاب النكاح
29	Divorce	كتاب الطلاق
30	Suckling	كتاب الرضاع
31	Business Transactions	كتاب البيوع
32	Qirad (Partnership)	كتاب القراض
33	Sharecropping	كتاب المساقاة
34	Renting Land	كتاب كراء الأرض
35	Pre-emption in Property	كتاب الشفعة
36	Judgements	كتاب الأقضية
37	Wills and Testaments	كتاب الوصية
38	Setting Free and Wala’	كتاب العتق والولاء
39	The Mukatab	كتاب المكاتب
40	The Mudabbar	كتاب المدبر
41	Hudud (Punishments)	كتاب الحدود
42	Drinks	كتاب الأشربة
43	Blood-Money	كتاب العقول
44	The Oath of Qasama	كتاب القسامة
45	Madina	كتاب الْمَدِينَةِ
46	The Decree	كتاب القدر
47	Good Character	كتاب حسن الخلق
48	Dress	كتاب اللباس
49	The Description of the Prophet	كتاب صفة النبى صلى الله عليه وسلم
50	The Evil Eye	كتاب العين
51	Hair	كتاب الشعر
52	Visions	كتاب الرؤيا
53	Greetings	كتاب السلام
54	General Subjects	كتاب الاستئذان
55	The Oath of Allegiance	كتاب البيعة
56	Speech	كتاب الكلام
57	Jahannam (Hell)	كتاب جهنم
58	Sadaqa (Charity)	كتاب الصدقة
59	Knowledge	كتاب العلم
60	The Supplication of the Unjustly Wronged	كتاب دعوة المظلوم
61	The Names of the Prophet	كتاب أسماء النبى صلى الله عليه وسلم

The relevant chapters that we need to investigate within the Muwatta would be:

1. Chapter 1: The Times of Prayer
2. Chapter 3: Prayer

Contradicting Rulings

When to Pray Asr:

Hadith	Description	Time Reference	Explanation
Hadith 2	A’isha reports praying Asr while sunlight was still pouring into her room, before the sun became visible (meaning the sun was still high in the sky).	Early Time (before the sun visibly declines)	Suggests that Asr prayer was performed before the sun visibly started to decline, implying that the time could be flexible or earlier in the afternoon.
Hadith 9	Abu Hurayra provides a more defined time for Asr prayer: “When your shadow is twice the length of your height,” a sign that the sun has passed its zenith and is heading towards sunset.	Later Time (after the sun begins to decline)	Provides a specific, observable physical marker (shadow length), indicating a later time in the afternoon, after the sun has already started to decline from its zenith.

This contradiction arises from the difference in how the time for Asr prayer is conceptualized: Hadith 2 indicates an earlier time (before the sun visibly begins to decline), while Hadith 9 describes a later time after the sun’s decline is noticeable (the shadow length). The two narrations reflect different understandings of when Asr prayer begins.

To Walk, or Not to Walk

Narration	Action	Ruling	Implication
Hadith 10 (Ibn Umar)	Yahya related to me from Malik that Abdullah ibn Umar heard the iqama while he was in Baqi, so he increased his pace of walking to the mosque.	Rushing allowed when hearing iqama	No prohibition against rushing if it is urgent or if the prayer time is close.
Hadith 4 (Abu Hurayra)	Yahya related to me from Malik from al-Ala ibn Abd ar-Rahman ibn Yaqub from his father and Ishaq ibn Abdullah that they informed him that they heard Abu Hurayra say, “The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, ‘When the iqama is called for prayer, do not come to it running, but come with calmness. Pray what you catch and complete what you miss. You are in prayer as long as your aim is the prayer.’ “	Calmness emphasized, no rushing allowed	Rushing prohibited; approach with calmness, catch the prayer that is still ongoing.

These narrations provide conflicting advice about rushing to the mosque upon hearing the iqama. The first suggests a situational allowance, while the second stresses a general prohibition against rushing.

The Tashahhud

Narration	Full Tashahhud	Key Differences
Umar ibn al-Khattab (Book 3, Hadith 56)	“At-tahiyatu lillah, az-zakiyatu lillah, at-tayibatu wa’s-salawatu lillah. As-salamu alayka ayyuha’n-nabiyyu wa rahmatu’llahi wa barakatuhu. As-salamu alayna wa ala ibadi’llahi s-salihin. Ash-hadu an la ilaha illa ‘llah wa ash-hadu anna Muhammadan abduhu wa rasuluh.”	Full tashahhud with complete greeting and testimony of faith. Red, Yellow, Pink, Green
Abdullah ibn Umar (Book 3, Hadith 57)	“Bismillah, at-tahiyatu lillah, as-salawatu lillah, az-zakiyatu lillah. As-salamu ala’n-nabiyyi wa rahmatullahi wa barakatuhu. As-salamu alayna wa ala ibadi’llahi’s-salihin. Shahidtu an la ilaha illallah. Shahidtu anna Muhammadu’r-rasulu’llah.”	Variation includes “Bismillah” at the start, omitting parts of Umar’s tashahhud. Bismillah, Red, Pink, Yellow – Goes against his father’s order.
A’isha (Book 3, Hadith 58)	“At-tahiyatu, at-tayibatu, as-salawatu, az-zakiyatu lillah. Ash-hadu an la ilaha illa’llah, wahdahu la sharika lah wa anna Muhammadan abduhu wa rasuluhu. As-salamu alayka ayyuha-n-nabiyyu wa rahmatu-llahi wa barakatuhu. As-salamu alayna wa ala ibadi-llahi’s-salihin. As-salamu alaykum.”	Adds “wahdahu la sharika lah” (alone without partner) in the testimony of faith, and ends with “As-salamu alaykum.” Red, Pink, Green, Yellow.
A’isha (Second narration) (Book 3, Hadith 59)	“At-tahiyatu, at-tayibatu, as-salawatu, az-zakiyatu lillah. Ash-hadu an la ilaha illa’llah, wahdahu la sharika lah wa anna Muhammadan abduhu wa rasuluhu. As-salamu alayka ayyuha-n-nabiyyu wa rahmatu-llahi wa barakatuhu. As-salamu alayna wa ala ibadi-llahi’s-salihin. As-salamu alaykum.”	Similar to first A’isha narration

Admitted Innovations in the Call To Prayer

Yahya related to me from Malik that he had heard that the muadhdhin came to Umar ibn al-Khattab to call him to the subh (fajr) prayer and found him sleeping, so he said, “Prayer is better than sleep,” and Umar ordered him to put that in the adhan for subh (fajr).

Muwatta  Book 3, Hadith 8

Umar felt the need to innovate this into the adhan.

Admitted Losses in the Call To Prayer

Yahya related to me from Malik from Nafi that Abdullah ibn Umar called the adhan on a cold and windy night and included the phrase, “Do the prayer in shelter.” Then he said, “The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, used to order the muadhdhin to say, ‘Do the prayer in shelter’ when it was a cold, rainy night “

Muwatta Book 3, Hadith 11

This is no longer apart of the sunni practice, which would indicate losing this practice over time.

Yahya related to me from Malik from Humayd at-Tawil that Anas ibn Malik said, “I stood behind Abu Bakr and Umar and Uthman and none of them used to recite ‘In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate’ when they began the prayer.“

Muwatta Book 3, Hadith 31

The first three Caliphs would skip the very first verse of the fatiha when praying.

I (allegedly) Saw The Prophet …

There are very few hadith in the Muwatta that actually allege what the prophet did in the prayer. There are a few that explain what the companions used to do, but if one is supposed to learn the prayer directly from the prophet (as mentioned in Sahih al-Bukhari 5662), then the Muwatta can only come up with 4 narrations:

Hadith Reference	Full Narration	Key Details and Explanation
1. Raising Hands (Abdullah ibn Umar)	Yahya related to me from Malik from Ibn Shihab from Salim ibn Abdullah from Abdullah ibn Umar that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, used to raise his hands to the level of his shoulders when he began the prayer and when he raised his head from the ruku he raised them in the same way, saying, “Allah hears whoever praises him, our Lord and praise belongs to You.” He did not raise them in the sujud.	Key Details Missing: No description of actions during sujud, no further information on other positions like standing or bowing in depth.
2. “Allah is Greater” (Ali ibn Husayn)	Yahya related to me from Malik from Ibn Shihab that Ali ibn Husayn ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib said, “The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, used to say, ‘Allah is greater’ whenever he lowered himself and raised himself, and he continued to pray like that until he met Allah.”	Key Details Missing: No specific explanation of body movements or detailed prayer sequence.
3. Prayer Resembling the Prophet (Abu Hurayra)	Yahya related to me from Malik from Ibn Shihab from Abu Salama ibn Abdar-Rahman ibn Awf that Abu Hurayra used to lead them in prayer and would say “Allah is greater” whenever he lowered himself and raised himself. When he had finished he would say, “By Allah, I am the person whose prayer most resembles the prayer of the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace.”	Key Details Missing: No description of specific movements or postures; general statement about resemblance.
4. Hand Placement in Prayer (Abdullah ibn Umar)	Yahya related to me from Malik from Muslim ibn Abi Maryam that Ali ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Muawi said, “Abdullah ibn Umar saw me playing with some small pebbles in the prayer. When I finished he forbade me, saying, ‘Do as the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, did.’ I said, ‘What did the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, do?’ He said, ‘When he sat in the prayer, he placed his right hand on his right thigh and he closed his fist and pointed his index finger, and he placed his left hand on his left thigh. That is what he used to do.’ “	Key Details Missing: No full prayer sequence; only posture during sitting

For 214 years prior to the compilation of Sahih Bukhari, Muslims did not have the hadith collections that we have today. Given that the earliest recorded collections, like Imam Malik’s Muwatta, are not comprehensive in terms of prayer practice, it stands to reason that the prayer was passed down through generational practice. This continuity of prayer practiced within the community, purified by the Prophet, is likely how Muslims learned to pray during this period, rather than relying on any ‘hadith’. Ask any Muslim today and they will tell you they learned how to pray from their parents; not Sahih al-Bukhari, the Muwatta, or any other compilation. It’s fairly simple, Abraham said:

[14:40] “My Lord, make me one who consistently observes the Contact Prayers (Salat), and also my children. Our Lord, please answer my prayers.

[Quran – 14:40] 

Isaac & Ishmael observed the Contact Prayers (Salat) according to 14:40, and others (like Jesus) did too:

[19:31] “He made me [Jesus] blessed wherever I go, and enjoined me to observe the Contact Prayers (Salat) and the obligatory charity (Zakat) for as long as I live.

[Quran – 19:31]

The Children of Israel, Moses, Aaron observed the Contact Prayers (Salat) according to 2:83, 5:12, 7:156:

[2:83] We made a covenant with the Children of Israel: “You shall not worship except GOD. You shall honor your parents and regard the relatives, the orphans, and the poor. You shall treat the people amicably. You shall observe the Contact Prayers (Salat) and give the obligatory charity (Zakat).” But you turned away, except a few of you, and you became averse.

[Quran – 2:83]

[5:12] GOD had taken a covenant from the Children of Israel, and we raised among them twelve patriarchs. And GOD said, “I am with you, so long as you observe the Contact Prayers (Salat), give the obligatory charity (Zakat), and believe in My messengers and respect them, and continue to lend GOD a loan of righteousness. I will then remit your sins, and admit you into gardens with flowing streams. Anyone who disbelieves after this, has indeed strayed off the right path.”

[Quran – 5:12]

The Children of Israel used to pray 5 times a day, but due to there neglection of there obligations, they lost their prayers:

[19:59] After them, He substituted generations who lost the Contact Prayers (Salat), and pursued their lusts. They will suffer the consequences.

[Quran – 19:59]

Muhammad was then commanded to follow the religion of Abraham, which had been passed down generation by generation (Abraham to Ishmael to … to … until Muhammad’s generation).

[16:123] Then we inspired you (Muhammad) to follow the religion of Abraham, the monotheist; he never was an idol worshiper.

[Quran – 16:123]

Muhammad did not receive hadith from Abraham on how to perform the Contact Prayers. Instead, the practice was transmitted from generation to generation, with each generation observing and passing on the ritual. By the time it reached Muhammad, he purified the practice using the guidance of the Quran, ensuring it aligned with divine intent and was rid of any Quraishi innovations. This transmission of prayer continues today, as Muslims learn how to pray from their families and communities. Even within the differing Sunni and Shia traditions, the core structure of the Contact Prayer remains consistent, demonstrating that the method of prayer transcends hadith and is a living tradition passed down through generations.